Richard j calabrese biography template

She found that online services are perceived primarily as information-laden media, and that audiences who need to create more outlets for information reception are the ones most likely to adopt online services Lin, Internet use is also linked to a series of instrumental as well as entertainment-oriented gratifications Lin, Rafeali found that the primary motivation of bulletin board users are recreation, entertainment, and diversion, followed by learning what others think about controversial issues by communicating with people who matter in a community.

Providing entertainment, therefore, can motivate audiences to use the media more often Luo, Examining the Internet as a source of political information, Johnson and Kaye found that people use the web primarily for richard j calabrese biography template and voter guidance and secondarily for entertainment, social utility and excitement.

The Internet combines elements of both mass and interpersonal communication. The distinct characteristics of the Internet lead to additional dimensions in terms of the uses and gratifications approach. The potential for personal control and power is also embedded in Internet use. Pavlik noted that online, people are empowered to act, communicate, or participate in the broader society and political process.

This type of use may lead to increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and political awareness Lillie, Heightened interactions were also suggested as motivations for using the Internet. Group support is another important reason for using the Internet. The Internet can provide a relatively safe venue to exchange information, give support, and serve as a meeting place without fear of persecution Tossberg, It provides an accessible environment where individuals can easily find others who share similar interests and goals.

Other studies identified anonymity as one of the reasons why people go online. According to McKenna et al. Another richard j calabrese biography template done by Choi and Haque also found anonymity as a new motivation factor for Internet use. Some also suggested that the Internet offer democratic communication to anonymous participants in virtual communities such as chat rooms.

Ryan indicated that anonymity motivates users to speak more freely on the Internet than they would in real life. With small fear of social punishment and recrimination, minority groups can equally participate in the communication process provided the technology is universally available Braina, Although uses and gratifications approach holds a significant status in communication research, the research of the approach receives criticisms both on its theory and methodology represented.

McQuail commented that the approach has not provided much successful prediction or casual explanation of media choice and use. Since it is indeed that much media use is circumstantial and weakly motivated, the approach seems to work best in examining specific types of media where motivation might be presented McQuail, Since it is hard to keep track of exposure patterns through observation, uses and gratifications research focus on the fact relied heavily on self-reports Katz, Self-reports, however, are based on personal memory which can be problematic Nagel et al.

As such, the respondents might inaccurately recall how they behave in media use and thus distortion might occur in the study. Angleman, S. Uses and gratifications and Internet profiles: A factor analysis. Is Internet use and travel to cyberspace reinforced by unrealized gratifications? Berelson, B. What missing the newspaper means. Stanton Eds.

NY: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. Braina, M. The uses and gratifications of the Internet among African American college students. Mass media: effects research - uses and gratifications. Choi, Y. Internet use patterns and motivations of Koreans. Asian Media Information and Communication, 12 1 DeFleur, M. Theories of mass communication 5th ed. New York: Longman.

Blumler, J. The Uses of Mass Communications. A dependency model of mass media effects. Communication Research, 3 Eighmey, J. Adding value in the information age: Uses and gratifications of sites on the World Wide Web. Journal of Business Research, 41 3 Ferguson, D. The World Wide Web as a functional alternative to television. Foo, C. Live from OP: Grief player motivations.

Grant, A. Dependency and control. Herzog, H. What do we really know about daytime serial listeners? Lazarsfeld ed. London: Sage. James, M. An exploratory study of the perceived benefits of electronic bulletin board use and their impact on other communication activities. Johnson, T. The Internet: Vehicle for engagement or a haven for the disaffected?

Johnson, C. Hays Eds. Katz, E. Mass communication research and the study of culture. Studies in Public Communication, 2 Ulilization of mass communication by the individual. Katz Eds. Beverly Hills: Sage. Utilization of mass communication by the individual. Uses of mass communication by the individual. Yu Eds. New York: Praeger. On the use of the mass media for important things.

American Sociological Review, 38 Communication research since Lazarsfeld. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51— Ko, H. A structural equation model of the uses and gratifications theory: Ritualized and instrumental Internet usage. Korenman, J. Herring Ed. Kuehn, S. Communication innovation on a BBS: A content analysis. LaRose, R. Understanding Internet usage: A social-cognitive approach to uses and gratifications.

Social Science Computer Review, 19 4 Lazarsfeld, P. Radio Research Communication Research NY: Harper and Row. Lillie, J. Empowerment potential of Internet use. Lin, C. Personal computer adoption and Internet use. Online service adoption likelihood. Journal of Advertising Research, 39 2 Audience attributes, media supplementation, and likely online service adoption.

Mass Communication and Society, 4 1 Littlejohn, S. Theories of Human Communication 7th ed. Albuquerque, NM: Wadsworth. Lowery, S. Milestones in Mass Communication Research. Luo, X. Uses and gratifications theory and e-consumer behaviors: A structural equation modeling study. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 2 2. McGuire, W. Psychological motives and communication gratification.

McKenna, A. Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4 1 : McQuail, D. The television audience: A revised perspective. McQuail Ed. Middlesex, England: Penguin. Mass Communication: An Introduction 3rd ed. Nagel, K. Predictors of availability in home life context-mediated communication.

Nortey, G. Benefits of on-line resources for sufferers of chronic illnesses. Palmgreen, P. Relations between gratifications sought and obtained: A study of television news. Communication Research, 7 2 An expectancy-value approach to media gratifications. Rosengren, P. Wenner Eds. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Parker, B. A uses and gratifications perspective on the Internet as a new information source.

American Business Review, 18 June Pavlik, J. New Media Technology and the Information Superhighway. Piirto, R. Electronic communities: Sex, law and politics online. Rafaeli, S. The electronic bulletin board: A computer-driven mass medium. Computers and the Social Sciences, 2 3 Rossi, E. Rubin, A. Mass media uses and dependency: A social systems approach to uses and gratifications.

Ruggiero, T. Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Ryan, J. Schlinger, M. A profile of responses to commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, 19 237— Schumann, D. Advertising and the World Wide Web. Severin W. Uses of Mass Media. Tankard Eds. Sun, T. Social structure, media system and audiences in China: Testing the uses and dependency model.

Tossberg, A. Swingers, singers and born-again Christians: An investigation of the uses and gratifications of Internet-relay chat. Notable Teachers, World-Class Reputations. Waner, W. The radio day-time serial: A symbolic analysis. In Psychological Monographs, 37 1, Watson, J. A dictionary of communications studies. NY: Arnold Publishing. Wenner, L.

Gratifications sought and obtained in program dependency: A study of network evening news programs and 60 Minutes. Communication Research, 9 Yankelovich Partners. Cybercitizen: A profile of online users. Felix Weil began the Institute of Social Research in These theorists were all associated with the Institute in the s, except for Marcuse, who began working with the Institute in The Institute for Social Research continues to operate at the University of Frankfurt, but what is known as the Frankfurt School did not extend beyond the theorists associated with it.

The interests of the Frankfurt School theorists in the s and s lay predominantly in a Marxist analysis of social and economic processes, and the role of the individual and the group in relation to these processes. Their particular relevance to communication theory lies primarily in Adorno's idea of the culture industry, and Marcuse's concept of the "one dimensional" man.

One of the sections of this book was concerned with what Horkheimer and Adorno called the culture industry. It was their contention that the culture industry was the result of an historical process that with an increase in technology including mass communication technology there was an increase in the ability to produce commodities, which enabled increased consumption of goods.

The consumption of mechanically reproduced cultural products—predominantly radio and film—led to formulas of producing them for entertainment purposes, and it did not occur to consumers to question the idea that the entertainment presented to them had an ideological purpose or purposes. Consumers adapted their needs around these cultural products, and in doing so no longer knew of anything else that they might desire, or that there might be anything else they could desire.

The entertainment that they enjoyed did not reflect their real social, political, or economic interests, but instead blinded them from questioning the prevailing system. Entertainment also had the function of allowing the dominant system to replicate itself, which allowed for further expansion in production and consumption. Thus, for Adorno and Horkheimer the culture industry worked in such a way that those who were under its influence would not even notice that they were being manipulated.

Dialectic of Enlightenment did not receive a wider distribution untiland although Herbert Marcuse continued the general idea of the culture industry in his One-Dimensional Man ofhe did not refer to it as such. In order to understand the creation of the idea of the culture industry as well as its reception the concept can be examined chronologically, from its pre-conditions, through its generation, to its subsequent impact.

The idea of the culture industry grows out of a concern with culture, is developed through insights into the mechanical reproduction of culture, and is ultimately generated in opposition not only to popular music, but also to Hollywood movies. That this is so grows out of a number of historical contingencies. Theordor Wiesengrund enrolled at the University of Frankfurt in not only to study philosophy, but music.

Although he wrote his doctoral thesis on Husserl, and a postdoctoral thesis on Kierkegaard, Adorno moved to Vienna to study music composition with Alban Berg. Adorno wrote most of his music between andthough he continued to compose music for the rest of his life. In addition to composing, Adorno was a music critic and editor of Musikblatter des Anbruch from to As a composer and music critic Adorno was aware of conditions relating to the production and dissemination of music in the s and s.

Because he had a profound knowledge of art, which is a great part of culture, his belief of what real art should be like influenced his criticism of the culture industry. To Adorno, the gist of real art is autonomy. Both the production and the consumption of a cultural product should originate through autonomy which provides uniqueness to real art.

According to Adorno, the culture industry produces a mass cultural product not based on autonomy, but rather on passivity, so that it never seeks to create real art or culture. Adorno was introduced to Walter Benjamin inand the two theorists became friends. Since Benjamin never received a degree that would allow him to teach at a university, according to Hannah Arendt, Adorno became in effect Benjamin's only pupil.

The relationship with Benjamin had an impact on the development of Adorno's thought during this period. Returning to Frankfurt, Adorno began teaching at the Institute, and published articles in the Zeitschrift fur Socialforschung Journal for Social Research that had been set up by the Institute in Adorno lost his richard j calabrese biography template to teach in September due to the rise to power of the Nazi party.

Horkheimer had already set up a branch of the Institute in Geneva, Switzerland, and the Institute began operating there. The Nazis' rise to power not only meant that Adorno lost his job and would eventually force his departure from Germany, but also affected his philosophical thought. Adorno was at Oxford from towhere he worked on a manuscript on Husserl.

He was considered an outsider, never integrating into the British academic mainstream, and he looked forward to joining his Frankfurt School colleagues, many of whom had in the meantime moved to the United States. Already in the late s Adorno evidenced little hope for mass culture. As propaganda and entertainment increased during the s, Benjamin and Adorno debated mass culture, since film and radio became the two most popular means to disseminate propaganda under the fascist and Stalinist dictatorships.

A primary problem for Adorno lay in the fact that instead of being enjoyed in a concert hall, symphonic works could now be heard over the radio, and could be reproduced on phonograph records. While Benjamin regarded the destruction of aura by photograph or film as the emancipation from hierarchical tastes tied to class, to Adorno, the aura of the original artwork was the essential of the artistic authenticity.

To Benjamin, the mechanical reproduction was the challenge against the authority of Platonic order from the top-the original or Idea- to down of layers of imitations; to Adorno, mass production was nothing but the destruction of the authenticity. The general attitude of the Frankfurt school was that of Adorno. For his part, Lazarsfeld looked forward to working with Adorno, whom he knew to be an expert on music.

In addition, he questioned the claim by the radio industry that the medium was bringing serious music to the masses Wiggershaus,p. While working at the Princeton Radio Research Project Adorno became shocked at the degree to which culture had become commercialized in the United States. Commercialization of culture in the United States had gone far beyond anything he had seen in Europe.

Further, the prevalence of advertising in the United States was something with no correlative in Europe. It became obvious that Lazarsfeld and Adorno did not agree on the value of empirical studies, and Adorno left the project. Because of the relationship between the Institute for Social Research and Columbia University, Horkheimer, who had already moved to California, could not bring Adorno to the West Coast until November The fact that Adorno was part of this intellectual community whose members were involved in the production of Hollywood movies must have had some influence in developing his thoughts on culture, since the Hollywood system inhibited the creative freedom that many of the expatriates had enjoyed in Weimar Germany.

For Adorno, popular culture on film and radio did not bother to present itself as art. Examples of this—not specified by Adorno—were the Hollywood production system, or the CBS radio network that had been associated with the Princeton Radio Research Project. Mechanical reproduction ensured that there would not be any real change to the system, and that nothing truly adversarial to the system would emerge Horkheimer and Adorno,p.

Paradoxically, any innovation would only reaffirm the system, and Adorno cited Orson Welles as an example of someone who was allowed to break the rules. The elasticity in the system would allow it to assume the stance of any opposition and make it its own, ultimately rendering it ineffectual Friedman,p. Like religion and other institutions, the culture industry was an instrument of social control Horkheimer and Adorno,p.

Adorno specifically defines avant-garde art as the adversary of the culture industry Horkheimer and Adorno,p. It was not high art that Adorno was presenting as an alternative to the culture industry, but modernism. Although he provides the idea of an opposing force to the culture industry, Adorno provides no overt Marxist analysis. Instead, he notes in passing that the dominant system utilized capacities for mass consumption for entertainment or amusement, but refused to do so when it was a question of abolishing hunger Horkheimer and Adorno,p.

Dialectic of Enlightenment was issued in mimeograph form inin German, and thus would have limited impact outside of the expatriate community. Nevitt Sanford, on an empirical investigation into prejudice titled The Authoritarian Personality. Adorno would also co-author Composing for the Films with Hans Eisler, and in this text Adorno made it clear that the culture industry is not identical with high or low art Hohendahl,p.

Dialectic of Enlightenment was published in Amsterdam in German in with a number of variants, excluding words and phrases in the published edition that could be construed as being Marxist Morris,p. Their apparent intent was to not attract the attention of the American occupation authorities in Germany. Thus, when excerpts from Dialectic of Enlightenment were published without their permission inHorkheimer and Adorno protested, distancing themselves from their own work, in order not to jeopardize their return to Germany.

In the late s the Institute relocated to Frankfurt, and opened in its new premises in Horkheimer became the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Frankfurt. It was one of the few occasions in the s that Adorno would discuss the implications of mass culture. Adorno would nonetheless on occasion attempt to reshape his thought on the culture industry.

In the meantime, Marcuse had developed a critique of Stalinism, and was developing a critique of social conditions in Western democracies, in part based on his familiarity with Adorno's work. The entirety of society had become organized around an ideology whose main objectives were to maintain social control and continue to perpetuate the ideology that maintained that control.

Echoing Adorno, Marcuse wondered whether the information and entertainment aspects of mass media could be differentiated from their manipulation and indoctrination functions Marcuse,p. However, it is difficult in Marcuse's argument to separate culture or mass media from society as a whole because Marcuse did not distinguish culture or mass media as entities separate from the totality of dominant ideology in the same way that Adorno had done.

Marcuse wrote, "how can the administered individuals—who have made their mutilation into their own liberties and satisfactions, and thus reproduce it on an enlarged scale—liberate themselves from themselves as well as from their masters? How is it even thinkable that the vicious circle be broken? Given the pessimistic tone of the book, it is somewhat ironic that largely because of it he would be perceived as an icon for leftist movements of the s in the U.

In spite of this, Marcuse maintained that he was a philosopher, and not an activist. Back to Profile. Photos Works. Main Photo Add photo. School period Add photo. Career Add photo. Achievements Add photo. Membership Add photo. During interactions, individuals are not only faced with problems of predicting present and past behaviors, but also explaining why partners behave or believe in the way that they do.

Uncertainty plays a significant role when examining relationships. High levels of uncertainty can severely inhibit relational development. Incompetent communicators may not be able to develop relationships or may be too anxious to engage in initial interactions.

Richard j calabrese biography template

West and Turner note that lower levels of uncertainty caused increased verbal and nonverbal behavior, increased levels of intimacy, and increased liking. In interactions, individuals are expected to increase predictability with the goal that this will lead to the ability to predict and explain what will occur in future interactions. When high uncertainty exists it is often difficult to reach this goal.

Although individuals seek to reduce uncertainty, high levels of certainty and predictability can also inhibit a relationship. Therefore uncertainty is a concept that plays a significant role in interpersonal communication. The following theorists explore how communication can be a vehicle individuals utilize to reduce uncertainly. The following theorists significantly contributed to the examination of uncertainty in communication.

The influence of their work can be seen as reflected in the assumptions of Berger and Calabrese Lewin, one of the founders of social psychology and a pioneer in the research of group dynamics, had a substantial influence on the development of interpersonal communication. Several of Festinger's theories were highly influential on the emerging field of interpersonal communication and on the development of URT.

Festinger is best known for the theories of Cognitive Dissonance and Social Comparison. Cognitive Dissonance Theory CDT attempted to explain how an imbalance among cognitions might affect an individual. Lewin foreshadowed CDT in his observations regarding attitude change in small groups Festinger, Cognitive Dissonance, like uncertainty, has an element of arousal and discomfort that individuals seek to reduce.

Social Comparison theory postulates that individuals look to feedback from others to evaluate their performance and abilities. To evaluate the self, the individual usually seeks the opinions of others who are similar to the self. Fritz Heider earned his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Graz. InHeider moved to the United States to work at Smith College and later the University of Kansas where he worked for the remainder of his life Ash, At this point, social psychologists like Heider expanded their research to focus on interpersonal relations as an important field of study.

Though many social psychologists focused on behavior in interpersonal relations, their research served as a gateway for research examining communication in interpersonal relationships. Heider focused on theories in cognitive consistency, emphasizing that individuals prefer when their cognitions are in agreement with each other. Individuals gather the information that helps them to predict and explain richard j calabrese biography template behavior.

When examining motivations in interpersonal relations, Heider found that effective significance is greatly determined by causal attribution. The condition of motivation becomes the focus and is relied on for making judgments and also interpreting the action. His influence continues to grow after his death in Claude E. Shannon received his B. Shannon worked for the National Research Council, the National Defense Research Committee, and Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he developed the mathematical theory of communication, now known as information theory, with Warren Weaver.

Shannon went on to teach at MIT until his death in Warren Weaver received his B. Shannon and Weaver significantly contributed to the systematic approach to the study of communication. Both theorists were engineers who sought to explain information exchange through cybernetic processes. They were the first to effectively model information, as they sought to explain how to attain precise and efficient signal transmissions in the realm of telecommunications.

Information theory provided the connections from information to uncertainty and uncertainty to communication that facilitated the development of URT. Individuals have a desire to reduce uncertainty and they are able to fulfill this need by increasing information. These concepts are further explored in the examination of information-seeking strategies in URT.

Charles R. Berger received his B. After graduation, Berger worked at Illinois State University at Normal, Northwestern University, and the University of California at Davis, where he continues to work today as the chair of the Department of Communication. Berger has published on a variety of topics in interpersonal communication including uncertainty reduction, strategic interaction, information-seeking, attribution, interpersonal attraction, social cognition, and apprehension.

Berger has coauthored five books and contributed to over thirty other texts. Richard J. Calabrese received his B. Calabrese became a professor in communication at Dominican University in River Forest, Illinois, inwhere he continues to work today. InBerger became an assistant professor of communication at Northwestern University. During this time, Calabrese studied under Berger, receiving his Ph.

This article inspired a wave of new research examining the role of uncertainty in communication. Berger and Calabrese formed URT, also known as initial interaction theory, to explain the role of communication in reducing uncertainty in initial interactions and the development of interpersonal relationships. The theory was developed, like other interpersonal theories before it Heider,with the goal of allowing the communicator the ability to predict and explain initial interactions.

Though Berger and Calabrese did not explore the realm of subsequent interaction, they did strongly recommend that future research should investigate the application of the framework of URT to developed relationships. But individuals can use communication to reduce this uncertainty. Individuals have the ability to decrease uncertainty by establishing predictable patterns of interaction.

Because of this, reducing uncertainty can help foster the development of relationships. Berger and Calabrese found that uncertainty was related to seven other communication and relational-focused concepts: verbal output, nonverbal warmth, information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, and liking. An interactive strategy, then, might resemble a face-to-face interaction, where an exchange of basic information occurs, and uncertainty is reduced through this initial exchange.

Initially introduced in by Charles R. Berger and Richard J. Some of those sources may not be in the words being said, but rather in how one is saying something — as basic information is being exchanged, one may pick up on certain nonverbal cues like hand gestures, facial expressions, and accents Floyd, In paying attention to nonverbal cues, we may learn more about another individual and further alleviate uncertainty, ultimately leading to a more intimate knowledge of the other person.

As a truly world-renowned scholar, Dr. His research resume is just as distinguished — having authored and co-authored dozens of books and articles related to many facets of communication. For more information on Dr.